Legal Obligations and Commitments of International Climate Agreements

Research Report By – Sreekanth, Sanya, Himani, Deepanshu, Bhavishya, Sumit and Ketaki

Table of Contents

Under Guidance of – Himanshi Panjwani, Director of Research, GRINista

Introduction

In this report, we will try to understand the implications of the International Climate Agreements to understand it better. Since the establishment of the UNFCC in 1992, global awareness of climate change has steadily increased, resulting in the creation of numerous legally binding climate agreements and treaties. Over the years, the participation of countries in climate negotiations has grown, accompanied by a surge in climate activism and public awareness. Despite this progress, a predominant stance has favoured safeguarding traditional industries, despite their significant carbon emissions.

The Montreal Protocol, initiated in 1987, stands out as a highly successful legally binding environmental agreement, though not specifically focused on climate change. The UNFCCC, established in 1992, marked the inception of the international framework for addressing climate change, ratified by 197 countries. This led to the establishment of the annual COP forum, where significant agreements on climate change emerged, including the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. However, the United States, a major emitter, chose not to ratify the Kyoto Protocol, citing economic concerns and perceived inadequate commitments from major developing nations.

Key milestones, such as the Bali Action Plan developed at COP13, outlined comprehensive strategies across shared vision, mitigation, adaptation, technology, and financing. Despite ambitious goals, the plan may have been overly optimistic regarding timeframes and the comprehensive resolution of global climate issues. Subsequent COP meetings, including COP15 in Copenhagen, marked crucial progress in discussions on climate policy, international collaboration, and financial assistance.

The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, stands as a landmark treaty with 196 Parties at COP21. It aims to restrict the global average temperature increase and marked the first time all nations united in combating climate change through binding commitments. Despite global efforts, challenges persist, as evidenced by the recent Glasgow agreement that emphasizes intensified efforts, financial commitments, and the urgent need to bridge the gap between current emission reductions and those required to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees.

Key Obligations and Commitments

The Paris Agreement

Climate change is a global emergency that goes beyond national borders. It is an issue that requires international cooperation and coordinated solutions at all levels.

To tackle climate change and its negative impacts, world leaders at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris reached a breakthrough on 12 December 2015: the historic Paris Agreement.

The Agreement sets long-term goals to guide all nations to:

substantially reduce global greenhouse gas emissions to hold global temperature increase to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change
periodically assess the collective progress towards achieving the purpose of this agreement and its long-term goals
provide financing to developing countries to mitigate climate change, strengthen resilience and enhance abilities to adapt to climate impacts.

In order to make the Paris Agreement fully operational, a work programme was launched in Paris to develop modalities, procedures and guidelines on a broad array of issues. Since 2016, Parties work together in the subsidiary bodies (APA, SBSTA and SBI) and various constituted bodies. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) met for the first time in conjunction with COP 22 in Marrakesh (in November 2016) and adopted its first two decisions. The work programme is expected to be completed by 2018.

The Paris Agreement, adopted through Decision 1/CP.21, addresses crucial areas necessary to combat climate change. Some of the key aspects of the Agreement are set out below:

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)- In their NDCs, countries communicate actions they will take to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) as soon as possible, recognizing peaking will take longer for developing country Parties, so as to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of GHGs in the second half of the century.

Mitigation – The Paris Agreement establishes binding commitments by all Parties to prepare, communicate and maintain a nationally determined contribution (NDC) and to pursue domestic measures to achieve them. It also prescribes that Parties shall communicate their NDCs every 5 years and provide information necessary for clarity and transparency. Developed countries should continue to take the lead by undertaking absolute economy-wide reduction targets, while developing countries should continue enhancing their mitigation efforts, and are encouraged to move toward economy.

Finance, Technology and Capacity-Building support – The Paris Agreement reaffirms that developed countries should take the lead in providing financial assistance to countries that are less endowed and more vulnerable, while for the first time also encouraging voluntary contributions by other Parties.In addition to reporting on finance already provided, developed country Parties commit to submit indicative information on future support every two years, including projected levels of public finance. The agreement also provides that the Financial Mechanism of the Convention, including the Green Climate Fund (GCF), shall serve the Agreement. Moreover, It establishes a technology framework to provide overarching guidance to the well-functioning Technology Mechanism. The mechanism is accelerating technology development and transfer through its policy and implementation arms.Not all developing countries have sufficient capacities to deal with many of the challenges brought by climate change. As a result, the Paris Agreement places great emphasis on climate-related capacity-building for developing countries and requests all developed countries to enhance support for capacity-building actions in developing countries.

Global Stocktake – A “global stocktake”, that took place in 2023 and every 5 years thereafter, will assess collective progress toward achieving the purpose of the Agreement in a comprehensive and facilitative manner. It will be based on the best available science and its long-term global goal. Its outcome will inform Parties in updating and enhancing their actions and support and enhancing international cooperation on climate action.

The Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change by committing industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gasses (GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets.

The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principles and provisions of the Convention and follows its annex-based structure. It only binds developed countries and places a heavier burden on them under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities”, because it recognizes that they are largely responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere.

The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of techniques that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.

The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Fund is financed mainly through a share of proceeds from CDM project activities.

The targets cover emissions of the six main greenhouse gasses, namely:

Carbon dioxide (CO2);
Methane (CH4);
Nitrous oxide (N2O);
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs);
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

The maximum amount of emissions (measured as the equivalent in carbon dioxide) that a Party may emit over the commitment period in order to comply with its emissions target is known as a Party’s assigned amount. The individual targets for Annex I Parties are listed in the Kyoto Protocol’s Annex B.

Table: Countries included in Annex B to the Kyoto Protocol and their emissions targets

* The 15 States that were EU members in 1997 when the Kyoto Protocol was adopted, agreed that the 8% target that will be redistributed among themselves, taking advantage of a scheme under the Protocol known as a “bubble”, whereby countries have different individual targets, but which combined make an overall target for that group of countries. The EU has already reached agreement on how its targets will be redistributed.

** Some Economies in Transition have a baseline other than 1990.

*** The US has indicated its intention not to ratify the Kyoto Protocol.

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.

The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation targets.

MEASURES TAKEN BY INDIA

1. Swachh Bharat – Swasth Bharat (Clean and Healthy India):

Through a nationwide initiative triggered by the Clean India Campaign and the National Nutrition Mission, India achieved 100% rural sanitation and sharp reduction in stunting and child and maternal mortality rates. Universal health coverage has been institutionalized through Ayushmaan Bharat, the world’s largest health protection scheme which provides an annual cover of USD 7,000 to 100 million families, covering nearly 500 million individuals.

India is at the forefront in the call for joint global action to address the COVID-19 pandemic. The country has extended medical assistance to several countries and has operationalized the SAARC COVID-19 Emergency Fund with an initial contribution of USD 10 million. Domestically, India’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic includes an initial USD 22.5 billion economic stimulus package, comprehensive health coverage for front-line workers and direct cash transfers for the most vulnerable.

2. Samagra Bharat – Saksham Bharat (Inclusive and Entrepreneurial India)

Social inclusion is pursued through universalizing access to nutrition, health, education, social protection, and developing capabilities for entrepreneurship and employment. Financial inclusion through Jan Dhan-Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) trinity – near universal access to bank accounts aided by the Jan Dhan Yojana (National Financial Inclusion Scheme); Aadhaar card (National unique identity number) for over 90% of the population; and expansive access to mobile phones, has propelled new avenues of credit, insurance, and Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT) to the poor, including to over 200 million women, thereby accelerating their economic empowerment.

3. Satat Bharat – Sanatan Bharat (Sustainable India)

India’s climate action strategies call for clean and efficient energy systems, disaster resilient infrastructure, and planned eco-restoration. Acting on its nationally-determined contributions, India has electrified 100% of its villages, reduced 38 million tonnes of CO2 emissions annually through energy efficient appliances, provided clean cooking fuel to 80 million poor households, and set a target to install 450GW of renewable energy and restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030. Globally, India stands third in renewable power, fourth in wind power, and fifth in solar power. India launched the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure and the International Solar Alliance to leverage global partnerships for climate action and disaster resilience.

4. Sampanna Bharat- Samriddh Bharat (Prosperous and Vibrant India)

India is one of the fastest growing emerging market economies with a young population and burgeoning innovation and business ecosystem. With a GDP of USD 2.72 trillion in 2018-19, India strives to become a USD 5 trillion economy by 2025, and pursue an inclusive and sustainable growth trajectory by stimulating manufacturing, building infrastructure, spurring investments, fostering technological innovation, and boosting entrepreneurship.

In the spirit of South-South Cooperation, for realizing the 2030 Agenda, India supports developing countries through the USD 150 million India-UN Development Partnership Fund. In this spirit of regional and global partnerships, and the country’s commitment to ‘leave no one behind’, India steps into the Decade of Action, drawing confidence from its experience in addressing challenges. Government of India will continue to work collaboratively with all domestic and global stakeholders to accelerate efforts for a sustainable planet for future generations.

Enforcement Mechanism

ENFORCEMENT MECHANISM- THE PARIS AGREEMENT

Accountability is essential for global climate action and governance. The issue briefly analyses the existing transparency and compliance mechanism under the Paris Agreement.At the twenty-first Conference of Parties,countries agreed on a new global climate deal, the Paris Agreement, to combat global climate change. The Paris Agreement was a monumental step because it brought all nations together to undertake ambitious climate efforts, adapt to climate impacts, and enhance support to assist developing countries.

The following features of the Paris Agreement relate to accountability and compliance:

A. Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)

The Paris Agreement obligates countries to “undertake and communicate ambitious efforts” in the form of NDCs to achieve the goals of the agreement. These commitments should be made every five years to reflect a country’s highest possible ambition and should represent a progression of ambition from previous NDCs. Countries are also encouraged to prepare their longterm strategies on how they are planning their transitions towards low GHG emissions or net zero, taking in account national circumstances and best available science.

B. Enhanced transparency framework (ETF)-

One of the central components of the Paris Agreement is the ETF, which builds on the existing transparency mechanism and adds credibility to member states’ efforts to implement climate actions. The ETF guidelines offer a common approach to the reporting and review process, but with flexibilities for developing countries. The ETF supersedes the existing transparency arrangements and demands that all countries report more granular data than before on their GHG emissions along with progress in implementing NDCs, adaptation measures and efforts, and the support (financial, technological, and capacity-building) needed, received, and/or provided to developing countries (UNFCCC 2019a). Under the ETF provisions, all countries6 are required to submit biennial transparency reports (BTRs) and the national GHG inventory, which are subject to a technical expert review and facilitative, multilateral consideration of progress (FMCP). Both the review and FMCP processes allow for independent assessments of a country’s progress in implementing its NDC. Furthermore, reporting under Article 9.5 of the Paris Agreement demands information on ex-ante climate finance every two years from developed nations and encourages developing nations to follow suit. These submissions function as formal sources of progressive finance information, making them crucial for planning and enhancing ambition.

C. Global stocktake (GST)-

The GST process is one of the fundamental components of the Paris Agreement. It helps nations monitor the implementation of the Paris Agreement and evaluate the collective progress made towards achieving longterm climate goals. The first GST took place in 2023 and every five years thereafter. It will be based on the best-available science and inform member countries on updating and enhancing their NDCs to achieve their climate objectives.

D. Compliance Committee

Article 15 of the Paris Agreement establishes an expert-based committee to facilitate implementation and promote compliance with the provisions of the Agreement. The committee’s mandate is to engage with Parties to identify challenges, share information, and make recommendations, including in relation to accessing finance, technology, and capacity-building support. The committee acts on circumstances related to assistance requested by countries, non-participation of a country in Paris Agreement processes, and failure to submit reporting obligations or commitments.

THE KYOTO PROTOCOL ENFORCEMENT MECHANISM

The Kyoto Protocol accounting system is centred on two parallel information streams – GHG inventories and assigned amount information, (see figure)

• Accounting of emissions and assigned amount starts at the national level. Each Annex I Party is required to establish and maintain a national system for the preparation of its national GHG inventory. On the assigned amount side, each Annex I Party is required to establish a national registry for tracking its holdings of and transactions of Kyoto units.

• GHG inventory data and assigned amount information are compiled in national reports and are subject to review and compliance procedures. These procedures verify the Party’s level of emissions and assigned amount, and its eligibility to participate in the Kyoto mechanisms

• Each Party’s emissions and assigned amount information are recorded as official only after the information has been reviewed and any questions of implementation have been resolved through the compliance procedures. The secretariat’s CAD is the official repository of information related to each Party’s accounting of emissions and assigned amount.

The Compliance Committee was established to facilitate, promote and enforce compliance with the commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.

It considers ‘questions of implementation’ concerning a Party’s compliance with the Kyoto Protocol requirements. Only a Party or an ERT can bring a question of implementation to the attention of the Compliance Committee. An ERT may identify a question of implementation in a review report for a particular Party, or a Party may submit a question of implementation with respect to itself or another Party. Neither the secretariat nor
the Compliance Committee may raise a question of implementation.

The Compliance Committee has two branches: the facilitative branch and the enforcement branch. The Compliance Committee allocates a question of implementation to the appropriate branch, based on their mandates. At any time during its consideration of a question of implementation, the enforcement branch may refer the question to the facilitative branch.

5. National Implementation Strategies and Challenges

For the first time, in the 1980’s the issue of climate change was put forth in the UN General Assembly.n 2006, India’s response towards climate change was a “National environment policy”, which consists of right to development, participation and partnership with FCCC, and dependency on multilateral approaches. From 1850 to 2019, India contributed 4% to global cumulative greenhouse gas emission.

In August 2022, India updated the NDC(Nationally Determined Contribution) policy stating, by 2030 it would reduce emission intensity of its GDP by 45% from 2005 level. Additionally, in non-fossil fuel-based energy resources, increment of 50% in cumulative electric power installed capacity. India has also submitted a Long-Term Low-Carbon Development Strategy, comprising seven major transitions to low carbon development pathways. One of the transitions would focus on promoting integration of Urban Design, Material-Efficiency and Energy in Buildings, and Sustainable Urbanisation.

The government of India launched various programmes and schemes such as the National Action Plan on Climate Change(NAPCC), National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC), National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA). Thirty- four states and union Territories (UTs) have prepared and updated their State Action Plan on Climate Changes (SAPCC) with NAPCC, tackling statewise issues related to climate change.

source: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.GHGT.KT.CE?locations=IN

1) National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

It was released by the Prime Minister on 30th June 2008. The concept behind launching NAPCC was to protect the lower sections strata by abiding to sustainable development strategies for climate change, to focus on ecological sustainability for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, designing cost-friendly strategies for end use of demand side management, to introduce and utilize technologies to control greenhouse gasses emissions at an accelerated speed.NAPCC outlines eight National Missions for understanding climate change, conservation of natural resources, and management of energy utilization.

1) National Solar Mission (NSM) ( Launched in January 2010):

The solar mission’s objective is to rapidly spread solar technology at a decentralized and centralized level across the country by establishing various policies. The solar mission adopted three phase schemes:Phase 1 ( 2012 – 13 ), Phase 2 (2013 – 17) and Phase 3 (2017 – 22).The major objective was to increase the use of solar energy over fossil based energy sources. It also planned to establish solar research centers, increasing international collaboration for technology enhancement, increment in funds from government and International support,build up domestic manufacturing capacity;

2) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency ( NMEEE) ( implemented since 2011):

The missions promotes decrease in energy consumption at large energy consuming industries. For futher enhancing energy efficiency in future, four initiatives with be put forward.

First, to reduce energy consumption at large scale industries and facilities, a market based approach would be used through tradeable energy saving certification
Secondly, rapidly siding towards energy efficient devices in various sectors by developing solutions for cost effective products.
Third would be to create pathways for finance demand side management programmes in all sector with respect to capturing future energy savings
Lastly, developing technologies and instruments to accelerate the promotion of energy efficiency.

3) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat ( approved in june 2010)

It was approved by the Prime Minister’s Council for Climate Change in june 2010. The NAPCC goal is to encourage sustainable habitat in urban planning. By application of existing Energy Conservation Building code, which promotes designing new models of commercial buildings with optimized energy demands

4) National Water Mission:

It ensures no water wastage, equal distribution of water supply in every state and conservation of water.The aim is 20% improvement in water consumption through regulatory mechanisms such as pricing and other methods to reduce water scarcity caused by climate change. Promoting recycling of water to meet urban area water supply demand and adopting technologies for purification of water such as low temperature desalination which allows the use of ocean water.

5) National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem:

The objective of this policy is to prevent melting of himalayan glaciers and protect the flora and fauna of himalayan region.

6) National Missionfor a Green India:

The proposal of the Ministry of Environment and Forests for a National Mission for a Green India (GIM) was approved by the cabinet committee on Economic Affairs as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme.NAPCC aims to expand the forest region from 23 to 33% of Indian territory and afforestation of 6 million hectares of deteriorated forest land. It aimed to yearly enhance co2 sequestration by 50 to 60 million tonnes.

Source: MoEFCC https://www.ispp.org.in/indias-climate-change-policy-challenges-and-recommendations/29174/ (Article)

7) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA):

It supports the development of crops which are durable in bad climate conditions, promoting weather insurance mechanisms and agriculture practices. It aims to encourage sustainable agriculture with integration of various new technologies such as assessment of soil health,and moisture content , improved water conservation methods and rain fed technologies.

Other scheme under NMSA are Soil Health Management (SHM), “Soil Health Card” Scheme, Farm Water Management (FWM).

8) National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC):

This scheme aims to establish networks within existing institutions to promote research and development on climate change and encourage sharing of data with systematic policy structure and aid from Institutional schemes. The policy stresses on research topics such as impacts of climate change on socio-economic domains like health, natural ecosystem, biodiversity, agriculture, costal zones.

Challenges prevalent in India to work for climate change:

India hasn’t committed to ease off coal power or disuse of fossil fuel in future, its been a debatable subject as in G20 submit india committed to phasedown coal., but there wasn’t any specific target set.
The government has made plans to not utilize gas power in its electricity generation yet its committed to gas based economy.
Liquid petroleum gas has been expanding in india this could put 1.5°C goal at risk (climate Action Tracker, 2022a). To keep this goal, india needs to disuse fossil gas from its power generation before 2040(Climate Action Tracker, 2023a).
The change in climate in india has been an issue with respect to electricity demand from April to October in the year 2023. The summers were unusually warm. Below average rain fall has reduced the hydro power production, which increased dependency on coal based power and as a result increased domestic coal production also, increased imports.
In climate tracker overall rating of India is Highly insufficient.
Since 1990 there has been increase in industrial process emissions at an annual rate of 4% (Gütschow & Pflüger, 2023). In 2022 it was accounted for 9% of total emission.

6. Challenges in Implementation:

– Identifying obstacles and challenges faced in meeting legal obligations

Ministry of Power(MoP) is executive ministry for Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill 2022 as the nodal ministry and the bureau of Energy Efficiency(BEE).However, according to Business Allocation Rules MoEFCC is the body that looks after the climate change and environmental issues. This raises a question in mind, whether MoP is the correct executive body for the policy. As an example, countries like UK and US implementation of the policies and schemes is done by Environment Ministry. Less clarity has been provided in the bill, on interchangebility of certificates.similarly for energy savings, renewable energy, and carbon credits.
India has been lacking behind in fulfilling the quota for installation of solar rooftop panels. The target for 2022 was 40GW and 6.7 GW installation were completed. According to Economics times india has observed a 47% decline in solar installations, hampering the project execution.From January to september 5.6GW. Mercom reported 34% YoY decrement in solar installation capacity at 1.9GW. Oversupply of modules in china caused decrease in average selling prices of solar modules. There are challenges in obtaining transmission connectivity, the lack of clarity on modified regulations for long duration access to transmission networks in the 3rd quarter of 2023, later at the end the regulations were clarified by the central electricity Regulatory Commission(CERC).

Source: https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1947140

Green India Mission to revive the forest by afforestation objective has fallen by 30% from 2015-16 to 20-21. According to economics times States such as west bengal and J &K and himachal pradesh are yet to be part of the scheme.
The NMW does not focus on the issue of water distribution is even btn the lower class and higher class. This has caused the reduction of per capita availability of water for lower sector.
NMSHE faces the issues such as manpower shortage, technical issues, financial restriction, and lack of coordination among the research institutions and ministries.
NMSKCC is lacking behind to set up nodal agencies, climate networks, capacity-building initiatives, and data-sharing systems.
A secure payment mechanism are absent in the institutes that host energy efficiency projects
NMEEE is suffering due to exchange of knowledge between energy suppliers and consumers, this leads to a flow of incorrect information.
Various schemes launched in the past few years, are overlapping with already existing ones such as AMRUT, HRIDAY, Smart City Mission, National Urban Livelihood Mission, and Swachch Bharat, overlaps with National Mission for Sustainable Habitat.The new schemes have received more attention than NMSH.
In urban planning process, few guidelines related to transport, energy efficiency, and sustainable habitat are yet to be incorporated.
Nation Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) has various shortcomings such as less attention is given to marginal farmers also, less focus is on adaptation scenarios for climate change resilience. The NMSA success depends on collective integration of other national policies related to agriculture, development, and food security like MNREGA, National Food Security Mission, and Farm Management Mission than others. Communication gaps between different ministries and coordination makes it difficult to implement the policies. It becomes a tedious and slow pace task.
According to the 2020-21 economic survey, to reach the India’s Nationally Determined Contribution goals, it would need USD 2.5 trillion (INR 11 lakh crores) at 2014-15 prices, due to inability to gather realistic data, the NDC targets were not fulfilled. By 2020, as support developed nation were suppose to provide financial aid of 100 billion to developing countries, but this wasnt received. Furthermore, IFSCA Expert committee on Sustainable Finance reported India would need 10 trillion dollar to reach the carbon neutrality by 2070. A gap in climate financial and due to improper green finance taxonomy, casual data reporting, domestic entries CPI(the Climate Policy Initiative) reported india raised only 44 dollar( 25% of the total requirement of every year) in the financial year 2019-2020.The international investment was 13% and 17% in the year 2019 and 2020 respectively (less by 5% due to hedging cost) in the region.

– Case studies on countries facing difficulties in fulfilling commitments

The government’s inattention towards implementation of climate change policies has been a debatable topic. In a press conference, a representative from Bangladesh restated commitments made at conferences need to be fulfilled and implemented. Similarly, various other delegates put forth their points regarding policy implementation, use of digital technologies for enhancing financing, climate financing etc . The African continent has only received about 3 percent of green finance in year 2021. Effects of climate change in Africa are related to water, soil and increase in sea levels. A kenya delegate talked about shift in their priorities from climate change to famine and droughts, protecting education from disruptions, enhancing social protection and healthcare systems. Côte d’Ivoire’s representative, highlighted for maintaining the 1.5°C goal of the Paris Agreement, needs different food and energy production systems as well as encouraging adaptation of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind power and hydro to reduce energy gap between the developing countries.

The countries assess implementation of the agreement after every 5 years through the process called as Global stocktake. The first report issued in the year 2023, alerted governments that the world is not following the path of achieving the long-term goals of the Paris Agreement.

Argentina:

It share 0.83% of global GHG emission and is ranked 71th in climate Vulnerability index ranking (2021 data). In 2018, 4.6% reduction on emission was recorded, it pledged to limit its carbon dioxide equivalent( MtCO2e) emission by 349 million tonnes by 2030. Its also focusing on reducing emissions in agriculture and livestock activity and emphasizing on improving water management strategies. Despite releasing these policies, experts alert that it would fail to each the sufficient progress over time. Over 122 mitigation measures, only 18 measures have quantifiable emission reduction potential, 36 measures dont have clarified targets and 56 of them are without indicators. Argentina suffers from levels of poverty (says Diego Roger, a researcher at the University of Quilmes and an energy specialist), therefore energy demands aren’t met. Due to higher cost, issues in grid stability and infrastructure, increment in the supply is not possible. Besides plans made to protect wetlands by the government no consensus has been reached, despite the continued forest fires.Argentina current administration is focused on restoring the energy sector with fossil fuels. In 2022 the government, paced the pipeline projects connecting the vaca Mureta shale fields with national gas network to expand the production. The pipeline built has set a record and starting operating in june 2023 and resulting de-prioritisation of renewables in favour of nuclear power.

Brazil:

Brazil is the largest emitter in latin America and caribbean region and it impacts the Amazon Basin ecosystems

Brazil has been focused on boosting its use of fossil gas in the power transport to tackle the hydropower shortage caused by droughts in 2021. Its long term energy plans are to expand and increase the fossil gas and oil production.Brazil needs to focus on meeting its 2030 target and similarly for 1.5°C.Brazil aims to limit its emission to 1.32 GtCO2e (AR5) in 2025 and 1.2 GtCO2e (AR5) in 2030. The CAT rating for policies and action is Highly insufficent. Deforestation has been increasing in Brazil at faster rate in th recent years. Increase in Illegal deforestation has been falling systematic institutional and legal framework for forest protection.

Countries which have nearly reached the carbon neutrality goal are Bhutan, etc During COVID19 Bhutan, was a carbon negative country due to its huge land sink. In its second NDC target (after COVID19), it reiterated its carbon neutrality target and released the sectoral wise plans for reducing emission.

Country	Climate Vulnerability Index Ranking	carbon neutrality in year	Reduction in GHGs emission		Renewable increase %tage
Côte d’Ivoire	134	2030	28 percent	2030	42 per cent by 2030.
Argentina	71	2050	19%	2050	20% by 2025
Australia	19	2050	43% below 2005 levels.	2030	73% by 2030
Brazil	58	2050	37 per cent and 50%	2025 and 2030 respectively	Already increased by 80%
South Korea	64	2050	35% 2018 lvl	2030	25% by 2034
Bangladesh	156	–	21.85%	2030	40% by 2041
India	138	2070	45% below 2005 lvl	2030	30GW by 2030
United states	18	2050	50-52% below 2005 lvl	2030	80% by 2030
Japan	62	2050	46% lvl 2013	2030	50% by 2030
china	74	2060	65% lvl 2005	2030	25% by 2030

As the number increases the Climate Vulnerability Index increases

Adaptation and Migration strategies.

− Analysis of strategies employed by nations to align with climate agreements

Key Outcomes of the 2023 G20 Summit Held in India. The summit’s theme, “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” or “One Earth, One Family, One Future” is rooted in ancient Sanskrit texts and the goal of sustainable development. Regarding climate change, the declaration stressed the urgency of mobilizing “US$5.8-5.9 trillion in the pre-2030 period for developing countries” and “US$4 trillion per year for clean energy technologies by 2030” to attain net-zero emissions by 2050. It called for a substantial increase in climate funding, transitioning from billions to trillions of dollars. [1]

Countries generally agree that global greenhouse gas emissions are too high, but prefer other countries reduce emissions rather than reducing their own. The Paris Agreement is intended to solve this collective action problem but is likely insufficient. One proposed solution is a matching-commitment agreement, through which countries can change each other’s incentives by committing to conditional emissions reductions, before countries decide on their unconditional reductions. Here, we study matching-commitment agreements between two heterogeneous countries. We find that such agreements (1) incentivize both countries to make matching commitments that in turn incentivize efficient emissions reductions, (2) reduce emissions from those expected without an agreement, and (3) increase both countries’ welfare. Matching-commitment agreements are attractive because they do not require a central enforcing authority and only require countries to fulfil their promises; countries are left to choose their conditional and unconditional emissions reductions according to their own interests.

The Climate negotiations in Copenhagen in December 2009 witnessed the emerging power of Brazil, South Africa, India, and China (BASIC). Although still focussed on domestic development goals, BASIC countries have made important steps toward a greater engagement in the global climate agenda. For India, the shift was marked by a voluntary, but conditional, target of reducing emission intensity, away from the past normative position based on “equal per capita,” emissions entitlements. The new track aims at finding cost-effective mitigation strategies that align national development goals and climate actions. This paper examines the mitigation potential of a domestic sustainable development policy using a suite of integrated assessment models. The long-term goal is to keep temperature increase below 2°C. This article shows that it is possible to match domestic development goals and climate mitigation. Win–win options exist and side benefits—in terms of energy security and local pollution—are important. However, development policies are not sufficient to achieve the desired emissions reductions. We find that it is necessary to introduce a constraint on the carbon budget. The price of carbon that emerges is however much lower than in a conventional mitigation scenario. Finally, this paper proposes to shift the negotiations away from the current climate-centric focus toward “development,” to reduce conflicts and deliver greater global and national benefits.[2]

– Legal perspective on adaptation and mitigation

In general, the issue of climate change is characterized by uncertainty, complexity, and multi facedness. In the Netherlands, climate change is in above highly controversial. These characteristics make it difficult to realize adaptation measures that are perceived as legitimate. In this article, we analyse the main difficulties and dilemmas regarding the issue of legitimacy in the context of climate adaptation. We conceptualize legitimacy from a legal, a planning, and a network perspective and show how the concept of legitimacy evolves within these three perspectives. From a legal perspective, the focus is on the issues of good governance. From a planning perspective, the focus is on the flexibility, learning, and governance capacity. From a network perspective, issues of dialogue, involvement, and support are important. These perspectives bring in different criteria, which are not easy compatible. We describe and illustrate these legitimacy challenges using an in-depth study of the Dutch Ijssel delta Zuid case. From our case study, we conclude that, from a legitimacy perspective, the often-acclaimed necessity to be adaptive and flexible is quite problematic. The same holds true for the plea to mainstream adaptation into other policy domains. In our case study, these strategies give rise to serious challenges in relation to good governance and consensus—two indispensable cornerstones of legitimacy.[3]

Role of Non-State Actors:

− Contribution of non-governmental entities and civil society in climate action

The involvement of civil society actors such as NGOs is often presented as one possible remedy to shortcomings in the democratic legitimacy and accountability of institutions of earth system governance. This article uses the case of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to show how its constituency of environmental and development NGOs has responded to perceived representation and participation deficits in global climate policymaking. It discusses three types of NGO responses, which could potentially help to bring the voices of affected but marginalized communities to the relevant levels of climate policy-making: firstly, NGO proposals designed to remedy representation inequities among governments; secondly, NGO demands for strengthening opportunities for participation by societal stakeholders at all levels of climate policy-making; and finally, representative practices (based on authorization and accountability) reflected in the NGOs’ own decision-making processes and governance structures. Regarding the first two types of responses, the article finds that the NGOs tend to support broadly similar standards of participation and representation in the climate convention. The analysis of the decision-making processes and governance structure of the Climate Action Network, the constituency focal point for the environment and development NGOs in the climate convention, highlights several ways through which the network can legitimately claim to represent a wider constituency. At the same time, however, it is important for NGOs not to underestimate the potential costs of high standards of inclusiveness and representativeness. [4]

− Legal implications of private sector involvement in meeting climate goals

Transparency and Reporting Requirements in International Climate Agreements

As climate change demands urgent action, international cooperation through transparent climate agreements is vital. This study dissects how reporting requirements in agreements like Paris, Kyoto, and UNFCCC act as “guiding lights” towards shared goals. Analyzing obligations across diverse nations, the research delves into two key dimensions: 1) reporting requirements for each country and 2) transparency of data sharing. This system is crucial for holding nations accountable and fostering collaborative action towards a sustainable future.

Examination of Reporting Obligations for Participating Nations

Paris Agreement (2015):

The Paris Agreement tackles climate change head-on through two key mechanisms: Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and the Global Stocktake. Imagine NDCs as individual country pledges, detailing their goals for curbing emissions, adapting to climate impacts, and taking broader climate action. Developed nations dive deeper with Biennial Transparency Reports (BTRs), while developing countries submit less complex Biennial Update Reports (BURs). Every five years, the Global Stocktake holds everyone accountable, reviewing collective progress, evaluating individual efforts, and charting a course for improvement. This cycle of reporting and review drives transparency, motivates ambition, and ensures nations stay on track in the fight against climate change.

The graph shows the NDC submitted by countries for year 2023 https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/nationally-determined-contributions.

Kyoto Protocol (1997):

The Kyoto Protocol established pioneering reporting requirements, creating a culture of accountability among its signing nations.

Annex I (developed) countries submit annual emissions inventories and National Communications outlining mitigation strategies. Non-Annex I countries submit less frequent National Communications. This distinction, while highlighting historical responsibility, raises concerns about equity and comparability due to differing reporting frequency and rigor.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

The UNFCCC, laying the groundwork for climate transparency, demands regular reporting from member nations. National Communications, comprehensive reports detailing their climate actions, are submitted by all parties.These cover greenhouse gas inventories, mitigation efforts, and adaptation measures

B Number of UNFCCC reports for LULUCF CO 2 fluxes in the National Communications and Biennial Update Reports per group of countries in Africa

(https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Number-of-UNFCCC-reports-for-LULUCF-CO-2-fluxes-in-the-National-Communications-and_fig1_377342083)

Additionally, developed countries must submit Biennial Reports, offering a deeper dive into their progress every two years. This two-tiered system ensures both comprehensive assessments and frequent updates, keeping transparency at the forefront of the fight against climate change.

Assessing the Transparency of Data and Information Sharing Among Countries

Despite clear obligations, challenges remain. Data transparency, however, show challenges, with inconsistencies in quality, accessibility, and public participation in review processes. That’s why assessing the transparency of data and information sharing among countries become crucial. The chart shows a system map used for assesing transparency of data

We will asssess different framework used in different climate agreements to asses the data and information sharing among countries as per the different climate agreement and protocol

Paris Agreement (2015):

Paris Agreement created the Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF): one reporting system for all, making progress easy to compare and track. But not everyone has the same reporting muscle. The agreement also offers capacity building, giving developing nations a helping hand to share their climate efforts on an equal footing. Transparency and collaboration, hand in hand, pave the way for a united front against climate change

Kyoto Protocol (1997):

The Kyoto Protocol introduced International Consultation and Analysis (ICA), a process where experts objectively assess the climate actions of developed nations. Think of it as a peer review system, ensuring everyone plays by the rules and fostering collaboration towards shared goals. This process primarily focuses on developed countries, analyzing their efforts outlined in their reports under the UNFCCC. It’s another layer of transparency, building trust and driving collective action in the fight against climate change.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

The UNFCCC promotes transperency through the Multilateral Consultative Process. This is a type of global climate change forum, where nations come together to exchange ideas, best practices, and experiences on tackling climate challenges. This open dialogue fosters transparency, mutual learning, and ultimately, better climate action for all.

Conclusion:

Transparency and reporting are crucial, letting nations see each other’s progress, share best practices, and hold each other accountable. From UNFCCC’s regular reports to the Paris Agreement’s common reporting system, the tools are there. But challenges like data quality and accessibility persist. By closing the gaps between transparency and reporting obligation, we can build a system where nations measure their progress, learn from each other, and ultimately, win the fight against climate change. Open data, open future – that’s the goal.

Evaluating Success and Impact:

International climate agreements are more than just a theoretical idea or concept on a paper but; they’re ambitious attempts to deal with climate change and build a greener future. So we need robust metrics to assess their success and impact, helping the way forward and holding nations accountable.

Metrics for Assessing Success and Impact:

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The ultimate metric, tracking reductions in atmospheric GHGs is crucial. We can analyze trends both globally and by individual nation under agreements like the Paris Agreement.
Temperature Change: Metrics like projected global temperature rise based on current mitigation efforts help gauge progress towards the 1.5°C or 2°C Paris Agreement goals.

Vulnerability and Adaptation:. Metrics like decrease in disaster-related deaths or increased investment in resilience infrastructure paint a picture of effective vulnerability and adaptation efforts.
Finance and Technology Transfer:

Tracking the flow of finance and the effectiveness of technology transfer initiatives between developed and developing countries are crucial metrics.

Compliance and Implementation: Metrics like timely report submissions, implementation of mitigation policies, and verification of emissions reductions are vital for ensuring compliance.

Case Studies of Nations Successfully Meeting International Climate Obligations:

Apart from all the agreement, there were some commitment made by some nations to meet sustainable climate goals by completing demand of International Climate Obligations. Those countries are presented with their strategies to meet the obligations.

1. Morocco:

Morocco pledged 52% renewable energy and a 41% emissions cut by 2030 baseline according to Paris Agreement Commitments. Smart strategies like feed-in tariffs (boosting renewable capacity 10x!), grid upgrades as per report of IRNEA, and training programs fueled their success. They even crushed their 2020 goal five years early and are on track to surpass the 2030 target. Challenges remain, like balancing renewables with grid stability and ensuring everyone benefits from the green shift. Still, Morocco’s achievements offer valuable lessons for other nations pursuing a sustainable future.

2. Costa Rica:

Costa Rica, despite lacking formal emission targets, achieved impressive carbon neutrality by 2012, setting a powerful example. Key strategies included reversing deforestation (forest cover soaring from 21% to 52%), heavily investing in renewables (now powering over 98% of electricity), and incentivizing forest protection through payment systems. This earned them global recognition as a sustainability leader, culminating in UNFCCC certification of their carbon neutrality. However, maintaining this status presents challenges: balancing increasing energy demand with a growing population and securing sustained funding for conservation. Despite these hurdles, Costa Rica’s pioneering journey offers valuable lessons for other nations striving for a sustainable future.

3. Rwanda:

Rwanda UNFCCC Obligations focusses on adaptation due to high vulnerability to climate change impacts like droughts and floods. Rwanda established a comprehensive framework for adaptation and resilience building across sectors. Data (9) UN Environment Programme report on Rwanda’s adaptation strategies says they implemented a network of rain gauges and weather stations to provide timely warnings for extreme weather events. Additionally Rwanda promoted drought-resistant crops and water-efficient irrigation practices to increase food security in changing weather patterns.They used their mainstreamed climate resilience into national development plans and sectorial policies. Still the main challenge stands for them is to secure adequate funding for adaptation programs, addressing social and economic inequalities that exacerbate vulnerability.

4. Bhutan:

Bhutan sets an ambitious goal is carbon neutrality by 2050. Their unique approach is putting nature first. Environment protection enshrined in their constitution, they harness clean hydropower, even exporting surplus energy. Deeply rooted Buddhist values of harmonious living with nature fuel their 70% forest cover, a natural carbon sink. Yet, challenges remain. Finding new renewable energy sources beyond hydropower and diversifying their economy sustainably are crucial steps on Bhutan’s path to a greener future.

5. Denmark:

Denmark isn’t just meeting sustainability goals, they’re exceeding them. Already surpassing their Kyoto target by 28%, they now aim for carbon neutrality by 2050. Through innovative solutions slashing energy consumption 20%+ per capita since 1970, smart economic policies like carbon taxes, and collaborative efforts driving renewable energy development. Denmark’s journey shows success lies in a blend of innovation, smart economics, and collaboration.Still they need to solve problem like sustainable development to meet their future goals

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

Here, we discuss what future changes in climate can be possible- whether they are for the good or bad, what can be done to correct the bad changes, what will cause those changes, how they can be revoked, etc.

Factors affecting the future changes:

Man-made factors:

Greenhouse gas concentrations (GhG)
Excessively disposing CO2, sewage and industrial waste into oceanic bodies resulting in ocean acidification, depletion of coral calcification, and thus extinction of marine species.

Natural factors:

Shifts in the tectonic plates
Frictions and tremors resulting into volcanic eruptions and tsunamis
Changes in the sun’s intensity due to depletion of ozone layer and other
Changes in ocean circulation patterns affecting rainfall quality, quantity and thereafter the water levels on earth
Global warming and thus shrinking of glaciers, depletion of snow cover and thawing of permafrost.

What are the emerging trends in climate change law and policy?

Here are some plans for the future:

Clean Energy and Climate Plan (CECP) for 2025 & 2030:
- The 2025/2030 CECP represents the Commonwealth of Massachusetts’ comprehensive plans to achieve aggressive emissions reduction in 2025 and 2030, in which the heat in homes, power in vehicles, and electric grid can all operate with a minimum reliance on fossil fuels, and natural and working lands can be protected from conversion and better managed and restored to enhance carbon sequestration.
- It exhibits the confidence that Massachusetts can help lead the clean energy transition and that doing so will mean more well-paying jobs, improved public health, reduced consumer costs, and better quality of life for all residents.

Singapore Green Plan 2030
- It is a whole-of-nation movement to advance Singapore’s national agenda on sustainable development.
- The targets are planting 1 million trees, quadruple solar energy deployment by 2025, 30% reduction in waste disposed in land, carbon neutralising 20% of the schools and purchasing cleaner energy car models.

Green Credit Initiative
- Apart from proposing to host COP 33 in India in 2028, the Government of India has also launched the Green Credit Initiative focused on creating carbon sinks with people’s participation.
- Green credits are earned by undertaking any identified activities like waste, water management, water harvesting), reduction of air pollution, sustainable agriculture, and infrastructure and eco mark label development.
- The carbon credit initiative, which was launched under Carbon Credit Trading Scheme with effect from June 2023 and the green credit initiative will complement each other and promote an incentive-based climate benefit market.
- The individuals and entities concerned have to register their activities through the central government’s dedicated app/ website and get it verified,post which Green Credit Card certificate is delivered online that can be traded for money on the Green Credit platform.

National Enforcement and Compliance Initiatives (NECI)
- US Environmental Protection Agency (“EPA”) recently finalised its long-anticipated National Enforcement and Compliance Initiatives (“NECIs”) for fiscal years 2024 through 2027, naming six “priority areas” on which EPA’s Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance (“OECA”) will focus its enforcement efforts and direct additional resources.

Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
- The US’ Department of Transportation has the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) that signed standards for Passenger Cars and Light Trucks (2027–2032) and Fuel Efficiency Standards for Heavy-Duty Pickup Trucks and Vans (2030–2035).
- CAFE standards regulate how far the vehicles should travel on a gallon of fuel. With this, the fuel economy will increase by 2% year over year for passenger cars, 4% year over year for light trucks and 10% year over year for heavy duty pickup trucks.
- Besides, there is also a regulation for fuel-economy window stickers on new vehicles.

What kind of measures can be taken in future?

These are the potential changes in legal frameworks to address evolving climate challenges.

People-centred approach- increase participation

Awareness needs to be spread amongst the adults, whereas the children need to be educated about this issue in the school itself. Common man, the semi-literate and illiterate should be able to grasp what this issue is, why we are facing such huge climate risks and how sustainable development is required in today’s era. Otherwise, the industrial and other metropolitan development leads to depletion of the much needed resources so much that the future generations will not be able to enjoy and harness those resources at all. To understand climate risk it is therefore critical to understand people’s sense of loss and to co-produce strategies to minimise these. There is a need to empower the vulnerable communities and foster collective action between government, technical organisations and community-based organisations.

Pathways for adaptation

Decision-making cannot happen in solo, there must be several adaptation pathways to guide the decision-making. If there are long-standing development processes, treaties or organisations that are no longer a fit in the current scenario or that have not turned fruitful after implementation, they need to be changed, modified, amended or adjusted for.

Investing more in the ecosystem and nature-based solutions

Man-made factors are more responsible for stresses in vulnerable ecosystems than the force of nature disturbing the climate. Coastal areas witness erosion, that can be and is often attributed to the rise in sea-levels, in fact it is the human activity of poorly designed constructions that are more of a cause. Wetland ecosystems witness floods which happen sometimes due to nature, and at other times it is the diversion of water by human intervention that is the cause. There is an alarming need to invest in infrastructure that can work with biological and ecological processes to reduce vulnerability to climate risks such as coastal erosion and urban heating. This will deliver efficient and more sustainable adaptation outcomes.

Investing in human and social development

Climate risk is shaped by environmental and sociocultural processes. For example, the effects of climate change on hunger is due to many co-drivers that increase vulnerability, including marginalisation of women from decision-making in households, and secondary malnutrition due to lack of access to quality water supply. While adaptation is frequently a matter of local actions, co-drivers often emanate from deeply rooted socio-cultural institutions that reduce people’s choices to adapt, including those associated with gender norms, conflict, caste, and land use. Recognition of the multiple drivers of vulnerability, however, also means there are multiple options to push the limits of adaptation. Examples include incorporating adaptive features in social protection systems so they help build households’ capacity to adapt and better respond to climate events. Decentralisation of programs to improve the participation of poor and marginalised people in resilience-related decision-making processes is also important. Such strategies enhance the choices people have to adapt to climate change in ways that minimize what they would consider to be intolerable losses and damages.

Innovation and perseverance

Only when innovation is followed by perseverance, will the results be rewarding. Continuously learning from the experiences, setting up successful examples, vigilance, maintaining records and reviewing the results regularly, improvisation of the solutions and adaptation are keys to success towards climate resilience.

CONCLUSION

Th universe is stricken by a global emergency called climate change or climate endangerment. To protect the planet and life form, an environmental law created and applied by countries at the international level to control actions relating to the environment and its protection e.g., Paris Agreement, Kyoto Protocol, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

International Climate Law:

a) The universe is stricken by a global emergency called climate change or climate endangerment. To protect the planet and life form, an environmental law created and applied by countries at the international level to control actions relating to the environment and its protection e.g., Paris Agreement, Kyoto Protocol, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

b) It is rooted in the understanding that climate change poses a unique and potentially irreversible threat to the well-being of society.

c) The three pillars of it are mitigation (adopted when UNFCCC was started in 1992), adaptation, and loss and damage (adopted by the Paris Agreement in the COP21, in 2015). Here, the loss denotes climate-related impacts for that cannot be restored and damage denotes restorable negative impacts.

2) UNFCCC:

a) Started on March 21, 1994, the UNFCCC is a framework treaty for intergovernmental efforts to address climate change. It later reached 197 parties by October 2020.

3) Kyoto Protocol:

a) The UNFCCC failed in various aspects, like it could not impose a legally binding timeline for reducing emissions, which led to the formulation of the Kyoto Protocol, in 1997 with effect from 2005. Like the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol too had around 192 parties by October 2020.

b) To finance the projects in the developing and underdeveloped nations, which were the parties under the Kyoto Protocol, Adaptation Fund was started.

c) The Kyoto Protocol stated the reduction in emissions by 25-40% below the level of 1990, by the year 2020.

d) Later on, in 2012-13, a new set of quantified targets were established for the parties for reducing and limiting the emissions, in the form of the Doha Amendment. The list of Greenhouse gas emissions (GhG) was modified to include nitrogen trifluoride.

4) Paris Agreement:’

a) Held in 2015 at Paris, the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) felt the need to enhance the framework of the UNFCCC, hence theParis Agreement was formulated under UNFCCC in 2015 with effect from 2016.

5) Conference of Parties (COP):

a) The first ‘Global Stocktake’ is considered the central outcome of COP28, held in UAE, December 2023– as it contains every element that was under negotiation and can now be used by countries to develop stronger climate action plans due by 2025.

b) Parties reported on progress toward meeting the goals of the Paris Agreement, wherein the EU strives to keep the goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees within reach, and support efforts to adapt to climate change.

c) The directions set out are- accelerating efforts towards the phase-down of unabated coal power, phasing out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies, and other measures that drive the transition away from fossil fuels in energy systems, in a just, orderly and equitable manner. Nations have agreed to triple the capacity of renewable energies and double energy efficiency by 2030, with developed countries continuing to take the lead.

d) Global greenhouse gas emissions need to be cut 43% by 2030, compared to 2019 levels, to limit global warming to 1.5°C. But it notes Parties are off track when it comes to meeting their Paris Agreement goals.

e) Implications for future-

COP28 concluded with the announcement of Azerbaijan and Brazil as hosts for COP29, 2024 and COP30, in 2025 respectively. COP29 aims to establish a new climate finance goal, reflecting the scale and urgency of the climate challenge.

6) International Climate Finance:

a) It is the flow of any finance to initiatives, programmes, or projects that address climate change and its impacts, more so from the developed to the vulnerable developing countries.

b) COP16, in 2010, established the Green Climate Fund (GCF) as an operating entity of financial mechanism accountable to the COP to decide the eligibility criterion for funding.

c) GCF had raised more than $12.8 billion for 128 countries for the phase 2020-2023, now the second replenishment is underway to raise for 2024-2027. The World Bank Group delivered a record of $38.6 billion in climate finance in 2023 which amounts to a 22% annual increase.

d) During the New York City Climate Week in September 2023, the Rockefeller Foundation invested $1 billion over the next 5 years for pursuing net zero standards including net zero greenhouse gas emissions.

7) The Non-State Actor Zone for Climate Action (NAZCA):

a) It was set up by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to allow non-state actors to register their climate commitments and helps track action that can support countries in achieving their objectives under the Paris Agreement.

b) UNFCCC launched the web portal ‘Global Climate Action Portal’ better known as NAZCA in 2014 to provide information about climate action around the globe, containing the commitments of countries, cities, businesses, civil society organisations, subnational administrations and international coalitions, including those of the Paris Agreement.

c) These have dual participation in international climate change- one by proposing a law formally under the UNFCCC, and the other by taking voluntary initiatives or international co-operative initiatives.

d) Implications for future-

The NAZCA are set to stay aligned and speed up for achieving their targets by 2030 and then focus on net zero emissions by 2050. They must annually disclose their greenhouse gas data, net zero targets and the plans for, and progress towards, meeting those targets, and other relevant information against their baseline along with comparable data to enable effective tracking of progress toward their net-zero targets. Reporting in a standardised, open manner and feeding into the UNFCCC Global Climate Action Portal is necessary to address data gaps, inconsistencies and inaccessibility that slow climate action.

8) Strategies for the future:

a) People-centred approach- increase the participation of the public by spreading awareness in the society, educating the children at school, empowering the vulnerable communities, etc. This will foster collective action among government, technical organisations and community-based organisations, as working towards a global goal in solo is not going to be successful.

b) Introducing and building pathways for adaptation- the long-standing development processes, treaties or organisations that are no longer a fit in the current scenario or that have not turned fruitful after implementation have to be either scrapped, changed, modified, ammended or adjusted for, to make space for introducing the new ones.

c)Investing in ecosystem and nature-based solutions is necessary to minimise loss and damage of the natural resources and ecosystem, predominantly for the communities that depend on climate-sensitive ecosystems or natural habitations for their welfare. The loss and damage can be averted with improved practices in natural resources management so that ecosystems are more resilient to climate stressors.

d) Decentralisation of programs will increase the participation of poor and marginalised people in resilience-related decision-making processes.

e) Innovation and perseverance should go hand in hand- vigilance, appropriate databases for maintaining records, regular review of results regularly, making improvisations in the solutions and adaptation are keys to success towards climate resilience.

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https://unfccc.int/process/conferences/the-big-picture/milestones/the-cancun-agreements
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Reporting Guidelines: https://unfccc.int/review-reports-ncs-brs
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Reporting Guidelines: https://unfccc.int/review-reports-ncs-brs
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